It's time to shed some light on the importance of fungi in neonatal intensive care units: what do we know about the neonatal mycobiome?

The 21st century, thanks to the development of molecular methods, including DNA barcoding, using Sanger sequencing, and DNA metabarcoding, based on next-generation sequencing (NGS), is characterized by flourishing research on the human microbiome. Microbial dysbiosis is perceived as a new pathogenetic factor for neonatal diseases. Fungi are crucial, but neglected, components of the neonatal microbiome, which, despite their low abundance, significantly impact morbidity and mortality rates of premature infants hospitalized in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs). The neonatal mycobiome's composition and effect on health remain poorly studied research areas. Our knowledge about neonatal mycobiome, composed of limited genera, is mainly based on research on the bacterial microbiome. We presume it is influenced by clinical factors, including prematurity, antibiotic therapy, and type of delivery. Understanding these risk factors may be useful in prevention strategies against dysbiosis and invasive fungal infections. Despite the methodological challenges resulting from the biology of the fungal cell, this topic is an attractive area of research that may contribute to more effective treatment, especially of newborns from risk groups. In this mini review, we discuss the current state of knowledge, research gaps, study difficulties, and future research directions on the neonatal mycobiome, concerning potential future clinical applications.

Prenatal and Neonatal Pulmonary Thrombosis as a Potential Complication of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Late Pregnancy.

Neonatal venous thrombosis is a rare condition that can be iatrogenic or occur due to viral infections or genetic mutations. Thromboembolic complications are also commonly observed as a result of SARS-CoV-2 infections. They can affect pediatric patients, especially the ones suffering from multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) or multisystem inflammatory syndrome in neonates (MIS-N). The question remains whether the maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy can lead to thromboembolic complications in fetuses and neonates. We report on a patient born with an embolism in the arterial duct, left pulmonary artery, and pulmonary trunk, who presented several characteristic features of MIS-N, suspecting that the cause might have been the maternal SARS-CoV2 infection in late pregnancy. Multiple genetic and laboratory tests were performed. The neonate presented only with a positive result of IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. He was treated with low molecular weight heparin. Subsequent echocardiographic tests showed that the embolism dissolved. More research is necessary to evaluate the possible neonatal complications of maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Multispecialty Approach to a Very Large Congenital Head and Neck Cystic Lymphatic Malformation in an Infant Born by SARS-CoV-2 Positive Mother-A Case Report.

Masses of the head and neck are often diagnosed prenatally and require special care due to the risk of airway obstruction. The EXIT procedure is a preferable mode of delivery. A congenital cystic lymphatic malformation is one of the most common lesions of the cervical region described in neonates. The treatment consists of different strategies and involves the cooperation of multiple specialists. Up to now, no guidelines or protocols are available. We report a case of a congenital cystic lymphatic malformation of the head and neck delivered during the EXIT procedure by a mother who was SARS-CoV-2 positive. We analyzed clinical characteristics, radiologic features, and treatment with injections of sclerotic agents and orally administrated sirolimus. Sirolimus seems a valuable and safe therapeutic option for treating lymphatic malformations, especially with adjunct therapies.

Diagnostic Challenges in Neonatal Respiratory Distress-Congenital Surfactant Metabolism Dysfunction Caused by ABCA3 Mutation.

Surfactant is a complex of phospholipids and proteins produced in type II pneumocytes. Its deficiency frequently occurs in preterm infants and causes respiratory distress syndrome. In full-term newborns, its absence results from mutations in the SFTPC, SFTPB, NKX2-1, or ABCA3 genes involved in the surfactant metabolism. ABCA3 encodes ATP-binding cassette, which is responsible for transporting phospholipids in type II pneumocytes. We present a case of a male late preterm newborn with inherited surfactant deficiency in whom we identified the likely pathogenic c.604G>A variant in one allele and splice region/intron variant c.4036-3C>G of uncertain significance in the second allele of ABCA3. These variants were observed in trans configuration. We discuss the diagnostic challenges and the management options. Although invasive treatment was introduced, only temporary improvement was observed. We want to raise awareness about congenital surfactant deficiency as a rare cause of respiratory failure in term newborns.

Markers of Maternal Insulin Resistance and Lipid Ratios Measured in Early Pregnancy Are Related to Adverse Fetomaternal Outcomes in Women Treated for Hyperglycemia Detected in Early Pregnancy-Data from a Retrospective Cohort Study.

Background: Hyperglycemia detected in early pregnancy is still inadequately studied as a risk factor for adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. Methods: a retrospective study of a cohort of N = 193 women in singleton pregnancies with hyperglycemia diagnosed before the 20th gestational week (GW). Results: characteristics of the study group: GW at the diagnosis: 12.0 (9.0; 15.0), diabetes diagnosed in early pregnancy (eDiP): 21%, insulin-therapy required: 61.8%, gestational hypertension/preeclampsia: 7.7%, premature delivery: 9.2%, composite adverse neonatal outcome: 59.2%, high (LGA) birth weight/low (SGA) birth weight according to the WHO growth charts: 24.2%/9.2%, respectively. Women with eDiP have lower eGDR, a higher TAG/HDL ratio, and a higher atherogenic index of plasma (AIP) compared to women with gestational diabetes diagnosed in early pregnancy­eGDM (9.33 ± 1.56 vs. 7.92 ± 2.54, p = 0.007, 1.06 ± 0.78, vs. 1.25 ± 0.68, p = 0.020, and −0.06 ± 0.25 vs. 0.04 ± 0.23 p = 0.021, respectively). NonHDL/HDL cholesterol ratio > 2.6, and AIP > 0.24 total/HDL cholesterol ratio > 4.5 significantly predicted metabolic adverse neonatal outcome (hypoglycemia and/or hyperbilirubinemia)­OR (95% CI): 4.62 (1.35; 15.79), 3.60 (1.04; 12.48), 8.75 (1.02; 74.83), respectively. Conclusions: 1, Hyperglycemia diagnosed in early pregnancy coexists with a lipid profile suggestive of insulin resistance. 2, Lipid-related markers of cardiometabolic risk measured in early pregnancy can be useful tools in assessment of fetomaternal risk in high-risk populations. 3, Women with eDiP present a more severe insulin resistance phenotype than those with eGDM.

Catheter-related venous thrombosis in NICU: A case-control retrospective study.

INTRODUCTION: Newborns treated in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are susceptible to several complications one of them being vein thrombosis. AIM: The study aims to evaluate risk factors of catheter-related venous thrombosis, clinical manifestations, treatment, and the outcomes of thrombotic events (TE) during the neonatal period. METHODS: This work is a case-control retrospective study performed on patients in the tertiary NICU between January 2013 and June 2016. The analysis includes data from infants with CVC diagnosed with thrombosis and infants with CVC, not being diagnosed with thrombosis (control group). Statistica 10 software was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Vein thrombosis was diagnosed in 19 NICU infants including 16 cases of catheter-related vein thrombosis (84% of complicated cases). Other statistically significant risk factors were asphyxia, infection, and the duration of CVC use. The incidence of thrombosis in our population increased during the study which may result from a statistically significant increase in the number of inserted CVC (294 vs 435), and more frequent diagnosis of incidental thrombosis (1 vs 9). CONCLUSION: Vein catheterization, asphyxia, infection, and prolonged CVC use are critical risk factors for thrombosis in the neonatal period. Given the hereinbefore mentioned increased number of central line catheterizations in the NICU, it would be useful to conduct a prospective study with a scheduled routine ultrasound protocol applied not only as a tool to diagnose thrombosis but also to prevent it by determining a proper catheter for a particular vein.

Hearing Impairment in Infants with Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy Treated with Hypothermia.

Therapeutic hypothermia acts as the standard of care for infants with moderate to severe hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). A proportion of neonates who undergo hypothermia due to HIE have shown to develop various degrees of hearing impairment. Analyzing and identifying infants at high risk of developing hearing difficulties is fundamental for early intervention of such auditory complications. The aim was to assess clinical factors in the development of hearing impairment following therapeutic hypothermia in HIE infants. A retrospective analysis was performed on infants hospitalized in our neonatology department in Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poland. All infants experienced moderate to severe HIE, and were treated with therapeutic hypothermia. Risk factors for hearing impairment were identified in all infants included in the study. Clinical data during hospital stay and follow-up hearing status were analyzed. A total of 87 HIE infants were included in the study. Seventy-six infants (40 male and 36 female) had otoacoustic emission (OAE) examination following birth, of which 14 (18.4%) demonstrated abnormal (positive) results. Infants with abnormal OAE results had significantly lower blood pH (6.86 ± 0.16, p = 0.001) and base excess (BE) (-22.46 ± 2.59, p = 0.006). Of the 49 infants who returned for follow-up assessment, 4 (8.2%) were diagnosed with sensorineural bilateral hearing impairment (1 infant, mild [<40 dB], 2 moderate [41-70 dB], and 1 profound [>90 dB]). The biochemical analysis following birth revealed significantly lower umbilical BE levels (-23.90 ± 4.99, p = 0.041) and higher lactate levels (160.67 ± 4.93, p = 0.019) in the infants with eventual sensorineural hearing deficit. Infants with moderate or severe HIE are at risk of delayed onset hearing loss. Diligent efforts to monitor auditory status are required, even if early screening results for hearing are insignificant. Exploring biochemical parameters, such as lactate, BE, and blood pH, can prove beneficial in identifying HIE infants at risk of developing a hearing impairment.

Clinical Characteristics of Newborns Born to Mothers with COVID-19.

(1) Background: According to the literature, most outcomes of neonates born to mothers infected with SARS-CoV-2 are favorable. This study aimed to assess the clinical characteristics of newborns born to infected women in a tertiary center in Poznan, Poland. (2) Methods: The study comprised 101 newborns delivered by women infected with SARS-CoV-2. The control group consisted of 101 newborns born before the pandemic. Data were collected retrospectively from the medical records. (3) Results: Most newborns of SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers were delivered by cesarean section-83.17% vs. 40.59% in the control group (p < 0.05). The groups did not differ in Apgar scores and the need for resuscitation. Newborns of SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers were more likely to present with respiratory distress and require respiratory support. The most common diagnosis was transient tachypnea of the newborn, not correlated with the mode of delivery. Newborns of the study group were never exclusively breastfed, 0% vs. 64.36% (p < 0.05). None of the patients in the study group was tested positive for the virus. (4) Conclusions: Infants born to SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers seem to be more at risk of moderate respiratory failure than other newborns. Separation of mother-baby dyads results in a dramatic fall in breastfeeding in the short-term post-partum period.

Gynecological Problems in Newborns and Infants.

Pediatric-adolescent or developmental gynecology has been separated from general gynecology because of the unique issues that affect the development and anatomy of growing girls and young women. It deals with patients from the neonatal period until maturity. There are not many gynecological problems that can be diagnosed in newborns; however, some are typical of the neonatal period. This paper aims to discuss the most frequent gynecological issues in the neonatal period.

Early Screening for Gestational Diabetes Using IADPSG Criteria May Be a Useful Predictor for Congenital Anomalies: Preliminary Data from a High-Risk Population.

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to investigate whether the International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) glycemic thresholds used for detecting hyperglycemia in pregnancy can be predictive for malformations in women with hyperglycemia detected in early pregnancy. METHODS: a single-center, retrospective observational trial of 125 mother-infant pairs from singleton pregnancies with hyperglycemia according to the IADPSG criteria diagnosed at the gestational age below 16 weeks. Glucose values obtained from 75-g OGTT (oral glucose tolerance test) were investigated as predictors for congenital malformations in newborns. RESULTS: Characteristics of the cohort: maternal age: 31.5 ± 5.2, pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) ≥ 30 kg/m2: 42.0%, gestational age at diagnosis (weeks): 12.0 ± 4.0, and newborns with congenital malformations: 8.8%. Fasting blood glycemia (FBG) and HbA1c (Haemoglobin A1c) at baseline significantly predicted the outcome (expB: 1.06 (1.02-1.1), p = 0.007 and expB: 2.05 (1.24-3.38), p = 0.005, respectively). Both the fasting blood glucose (FBG) value of 5.1 mmol/dL (diagnostic for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM)) and 5.5 mmol/dL (upper limit for normoglycemia in the general population) significantly increased the likelihood ratio (LR) for fetal malformations: 1.3 (1.1; 1.4) and 1.5 (1.0; 2.4), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: (1) Fasting glycemia diagnostic for GDM measured in early pregnancy is associated with a significantly elevated risk for congenital malformations. (2) Our data suggest that women at elevated risks of GDM/diabetes in pregnancy (DiP) should have their fasting blood glucose assessed before becoming pregnant, and the optimization of glycemic control should be considered if the FBG exceeds 5.1 mmol/dL.

Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors for Isolated Hemangiomas in Infants.

The goal of this analysis is to identify risk factors for infantile hemangiomas (IH) to better delineate hemangioma predisposition. We analyzed live birth children with isolated cutaneous hemangioma that were reported to the Polish Registry of Congenital Malformations from across Poland between the years 1998 and 2016. Lower birthweight and gestational age were the most significant risk factors associated with IH. We also observed a trend for a higher risk of IH with a lower level of maternal and paternal education. Moreover, mothers with IH have a higher probability of having a child with IH compared to fathers. However, this association is only present when the child is female. Similarly, a higher risk of hemangioma in a female child is found among mothers having relatives of the first degree with IH, compared to fathers with a similar pedigree. Our results suggest the role of exogenous factors in the etiology of IH. The analysis of familial cases suggests a multifactorial model of inheritance. The study indicates that female gender is an important risk factor for the expression of familial IH. Potential interaction of genetic risk factors with exposure to female sex hormones may play a role in the development of IH.

Congenital Laryngeal Stenosis and Concomitant Birth Defects in a Term Newborn: A Case Report.

Congenital laryngeal stenosis is a rare and unusual anomaly that usually presents in the first minutes after delivery as severe life-threatening respiratory distress. It may exist as an isolated entity or in association with other congenital malformations, in particular cardiac anomalies. In this paper, we present the case of an infant with prenatal suspicion of tetralogy of Fallot. Immediately after delivery, the patient required intubation, which proved difficult. He was eventually diagnosed with laryngeal stenosis requiring laryngological treatment.

Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion reduces neonatal risk in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVES: An attempt was made to demonstrate the superiority of the treatment model using continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) over multiple daily injections (MDI) of insulin in achieving a successful pregnancy outcome and good newborn's condition in patients with type 1 diabetes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included 297 infants born to type 1 diabetic patients; 175 patients were treated with MDI and 122 with CSII. Maternal metabolic control during pregnancy, gestational weight gain, insulin requirements, pregnancy outcome and neonatal status were compared between MDI and CSII arm. The composite adverse neonatal outcome was diagnosed if at least one of the following was found: abnormal birth weight (LGA or SGA), congenital malformation, miscarriage, intrauterine fetal death, emergency CS due to fetal risk, iatrogenic prematurity, RDS, hypoglycemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and the postpartum pH in the umbilical artery ≤ 7.1. RESULTS: The studied groups did not differ regarding gestational week at delivery, a proportion of births at full term, preterm births, miscarriages, or late pregnancy losses (intrauterine fetal death > 22 weeks). Newborns of mothers treated with CSII showed lower incidence of neonatal complications (composite adverse neonatal outcome) compared to those of mothers treated with MDI (60% vs 74%, respectively; p = 0.01). We did not find any association between the mode of treatment and composite adverse maternal outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The use of CSII in the treatment of pregnant women with type 1 diabetes was associated with reduced number of neonatal complications presented as neonatal composite outcome but had no influence on maternal outcome.

Sensorineural and conductive hearing loss in infants diagnosed in the program of universal newborn hearing screening.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze infants diagnosed with sensorineural or conductive hearing deficit and to identify risk factors associated with these defects. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A retrospective analysis of infants diagnosed with hearing deficit based on the database of the universal newborn hearing screening program and medical records of the patients. RESULTS: 27 935 infants were covered by the universal neonatal hearing screening program. 109 (0.39%) were diagnosed with hearing deficit and referred for treatment and rehabilitation. 56 (51.4%) children were diagnosed with conductive, 38 (34.9%) with sensorineural and 15 (13.8%) with mixed type of hearing deficit. Children with sensorineural hearing deficit more frequently suffered from hyperbilirubinemia (p < 0.05), while infants with conductive hearing loss were more frequently diagnosed with isolated craniofacial anomalies (p < 0.05). The prevalence of other risk factors did not differ between the groups. Sensorineural hearing deficit occurred almost 3 times more often bilaterally than unilaterally (p < 0.05). In other types of hearing deficit, the difference was not significant. In children with conductive and mixed type of hearing loss the impairment was mainly mild while among those with sensorineural hearing deficit in almost 45% it was severe and profound (p < 0.05). When analyzing the consistency between hearing screening test by means of otoacoustic emissions and the final diagnosis of hearing deficit we found that the highest agreement rate was observed in children with sensorineural hearing loss (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of most risk factors of hearing deficit was similar in children with sensorineural, conductive and mixed type of hearing loss, only hyperbilirubinemia seemed to predispose to sensorineural hearing deficit and isolated craniofacial malformations seemed to be associated with conductive hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing deficit usually occurred bilaterally and was severe or profound, while conductive and mixed type of hearing deficit were most often of mild degree. Most children with the final diagnosis of sensorineural hearing deficit had positive result of hearing screening by means of otoacoustic emissions.

Hearing impairment in premature newborns-Analysis based on the national hearing screening database in Poland.

OBJECTIVES: The incidence of sensorineural hearing loss is between 1 and 3 per 1000 in healthy neonates and 2-4 per 100 in high-risk infants. The national universal neonatal hearing screening carried out in Poland since 2002 enables selection of infants with suspicion and/or risk factors of hearing loss. In this study, we assessed the incidence and risk factors of hearing impairment in infants ≤33 weeks' gestational age (wga). METHODS: We analyzed the database of the Polish Universal Newborns Hearing Screening Program from 2010 to 2013. The study group involved 11438 infants born before 33 wga, the control group-1487730 infants. Screening was performed by means of transient evoked otoacoustic emissions. The risk factors of hearing loss were recorded. Infants who failed the screening test and/or had risk factors were referred for further audiological evaluation. RESULTS: Hearing deficit was diagnosed in 11% of infants ≤25 wga, 5% at 26-27 wga, 3.46% at 28 wga and 2-3% at 29-32 wga. In the control group the incidence of hearing deficit was 0.2% (2.87% with risk factors). The most important risk factors were craniofacial malformations, very low birth weight, low Apgar score and mechanical ventilation. Hearing screening was positive in 22.42% newborns ≤28 wga and 10% at 29-32 wga and in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Hearing impairment is a severe consequence of prematurity. Its prevalence is inversely related to the maturity of the baby. Premature infants have many concomitant risk factors which influence the occurrence of hearing deficit.

The results of newborn hearing screening by means of transient otoacoustic emissions - has anything changed over 10 years?

OBJECTIVES: Universal newborn hearing screening (UNHS) has become the standard of care in many countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the results of UNHS after ten years of the program in Poland and to compare them with the results of 2003. METHODS: In the study, we analyze the results of UNHS in the University Hospital in Poznan, Poland. Between 01.01.2013 and 31.12.2013, 6827 children were examined by means of otoacoustic emissions. RESULTS: Risk factors (RF) were identified in 772 (11.3%) newborns, which is significantly less than 10 years ago (p < 0.05). The most frequent RF were: ototoxic medications, treatment in neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and prematurity < 33 weeks of gestation. In 2003, the most frequent were ototoxic medications and prematurity, less frequent was treatment in NICU and more common was low Apgar score. In 51 (6.6%) newborns with RF, the result of OAE was positive either unilaterally or bilaterally. In infants without RF the result was positive unilaterally in 22 (0.4%) and bilaterally in 14 (0.2%) patients. These results are significantly lower than in our former study. The relative risk of positive result was the highest in infants with complex congenital anomalies (RR = 44.99), craniofacial anomalies (RR = 17.46) and mechanical ventilation for > 5 days (RR = 10.69). In our previous study, the highest RR of positive test results was in infants with family history, congenital malformations and low Apgar score. We found that most predictive as to the final diagnosis was bilaterally positive OAE test. In most patients, the second check confirmed the diagnosis, independently of RF. The number of false positive tests at the 1st level of screening is significantly lower now than 10 years ago, probably due to better staff training. CONCLUSIONS: Long term monitoring and the appropriate management of hearing deficit in children is essential. UNHS seems to be the most efficient way of finding children who require treatment of hearing impairment. The prevalence of most risk factors of hearing deficit has significantly changed over the years. The number of false positive results has significantly decreased over the years thanks to better staff training.

Universal newborn hearing screening: methods and results, obstacles, and benefits.

The incidence of sensorineural hearing loss ranges from 1 to 3 per 1,000 live births in term healthy neonates, and 2-4 per 100 in high-risk infants, a 10-fold increase. Early identification and intervention with hearing augmentation within 6 mo yields optimal effect. If undetected and without treatment, significant hearing impairment may negatively impact speech development and lead to disorders in psychological and mental behaviors. Hearing screening programs in newborns enable detection of hearing impairment in the first days after birth. Programs to identify hearing deficit have significantly improved over the two decades, and their implementation continues to grow throughout the world. Initially based on risk factors, these programs identified only 50-75% of infants with hearing loss. Current recommendations are to conduct universal hearing screening in all infants. Techniques used primarily include automated auditory brainstem responses and otoacoustic emissions that provide noninvasive recordings of physiologic auditory activity and are easily performed in neonates and infants. The aim of this review is to present the objectives, benefits, and results of newborn hearing screening programs including the pros and cons of universal vs. selective screening. A brief history and the anticipated future development of these programs will also be discussed.

Multiple daily injections of insulin versus continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion for pregnant women with type 1 diabetes.

AIMS: The aim was to evaluate the outcome of pregnancies with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) treated from the first trimester with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) or multiple daily injections (MDI). METHODS: In a retrospective, observational study, we matched 64 CSII patients for age, age at onset and duration of diabetes and HbA1c in the first trimester with 64 MDI pregnancies. We analysed carbohydrate metabolism, insulin requirements, development of PIH, progression of retinopathy and fetal outcome. RESULTS: In CSII group, we found a significantly smaller insulin requirement both at the beginning of pregnancy and before delivery, significant decrease in HbA1c levels and significantly smaller number of hypoglycaemic episodes in the second trimester and significantly more hyperglycaemic episodes in the first trimester. In both groups, maternal, fetal and perinatal outcomes were similar and the number of hypo- and hyperglycaemic episodes decreased throughout pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) treatment in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes is associated with a reduced number of hypoglycaemia and decreased insulin requirement. We noted no difference in perinatal outcome comparing women on multiple insulin injections with those on continuous insulin infusion.

Maternal/fetal mortality and fetal growth restriction: role of nitric oxide and virulence factors in intrauterine infection in rats.

OBJECTIVE: The mechanism of infection-related deaths of pregnant rats and intrauterine growth restriction are not understood. We assessed whether nitric oxide (NO) has differential effects on infection with Escherichia coli Dr/Afa mutants that lack either AfaE or AfaD invasins. STUDY DESIGN: Sprague-Dawley rats were infected intrauterinally with the clinical strain of E coli AfaE(+)D(+) or 1 of its isogenic mutants in the presence or absence of the NO synthesis inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME). Maternal/fetal mortality rates, fetoplacental weight, and infection rates were evaluated. RESULTS: Maternal and/or fetal death was associated with the presence of at least 1 virulence factor (AfaE(+)D(+)>AfaE(+)D(-)>AfaE(-)D(+)) and was increased by L-NAME treatment. The fetal and placental weights were lower than controls and were further reduced by L-NAME treatment. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that NO enhanced AfaE- and AfaD-mediated virulence and plays an important role in Dr/Afa(+)E coli gestational tropism.

Long-term effects of diabetes during pregnancy on the offspring.

BACKGROUND: Many epidemiological and experimental studies have proven that some adult diseases might have their origin in fetal life. It has been also hypothesized that intra-uterine environment in pregnancy complicated with diabetes might influence the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases in the offspring. OBJECTIVES: To assess glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and prevalence of obesity in the offspring of mothers with pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to evaluate the relationship between maternal metabolic control during pregnancy and metabolic disturbances in children. SUBJECTS: Children of mothers with PGDM (n = 43) and GDM (n = 34) were examined at 4-9 yr of age and compared with the control group (n = 108; metabolic parameters available for n = 29). METHODS: The incidence of overweight and obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance were analyzed based on anthropometric and biochemical measurements. Statistical analysis was performed with statistica package. RESULTS: In children of GDM mothers, body mass index z-score (0.81 +/- 1.01 vs. -0.04 +/- 1.42 PGDM vs. 0.07 +/- 1.28 control group) and insulin resistance indices (homeostasis model assessment index - insulin resistance 1.112 vs. 0.943 PGDM vs. 0.749 control group) were significantly higher than in other groups. Obesity and insulin resistance were also most frequent in GDM group [not significant (NS)]. In addition, we observed the relationship between maternal hemoglobin A1c and mean glycemia in perinatal period and insulin resistance in children. There was not such correlation for the class of maternal diabetes. CONCLUSION: Children born to mothers with gestational diabetes seem to be at risk for obesity and metabolic disturbances.